Humanist Italy, Renaissance / The Ottoman Empire

   The Renaissance was the revival of antique-classical- culture (Greco-Roman culture) and rebirth of the urban civilization in Europe. This antique architecture knowledge came from rest of the ancient buildings and the Vitruvius. Vitruvius like a bible of Renaissance architecture. Besides, new style that based on symmetry, proportions and the columns were followed. *Actually, because of the importance of the proportions that was the factor of beauty, in Renaissance there was a relation between the human proportions and structures. Moreover, to create an ideal city, the city’s role was reconsidered in the human culture.

The Renaissance arose in Florence in the 15^th century and replacing the Gothic style. However, when the Renaissance started, Gothic style didn’t stop, but we started to see the revival of the ancient Roman forms. It started with the education in terms of humanism and the humanism spread along the various field that one of was art- architecture. Instead of imitating the antique structures, the architects tried to discover the basis of design. The palaces and churches that were affected by the humanism, gave a new character to the Italian cities with its’ geometric and uniform formation.

 

‘Respect to Proportions’

The rounded arches, symmetrical bays and the proportions that were create a harmony were mostly used in the 14^th century Florence. On the other hand, the idea of perspective-optics- became important because it is thought that the architectural proportions had a relation with the perspective. At this point, I can give an example of a painter, Piero della Francesca, who draw the Renaissance ideal city with organizing things in perspective sense. Thus, the Renaissance ideal perspective attended the development of city’s public spaces.

The construction of Santa Maria del Fiore cathedral started(1296) with a suggestion of four pieces ribbed vaults Gothic style. Over time, the construction stopped and resumed, then an area was designed for an octagonal dome and the cupola was set as wide as Pantheon, with a double height. As a note, we don’t see a dome in the Gothic churches but in St. Maria del Fiore the dome was constructed. The buildings that were surrounding the cathedral, rebuilt with stone and round-arched doors to echo the outline of dome. After a while Brunelleschi who considered as the first Renaissance architect, started to work on a solution for dome. He built a new dome without falsework. The structure supported itself. Brunelleschi built the double-shell dome with the strong masonry and support techniques.

Santa Maria del Fiore

 

Brunelleschi designed the Foundling Hospital-Ospedale degli Innocenti-, most like an orphanage that had the urban square courtyard and long halls set behind the public loggia. It had unified façade with the Corinthian columns. Besides, he started to work on the San Lorenzo. It designed as a cube that covered with hemispherical dome on pendentives. Also, the round windows were used that was the Gothic style.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Apart from the benefitting from the classical influences, Brunelleschi continued to use Florentine Gothic style.

 

The Ottoman Empire

In the 14^th century, the Ottoman Turks that the origin came from Central Asia, settled in the western Anatolia and the continuous territorial expansion could be observed. When we consider their architecture, Byzantine influences and architectural traditions of the Central Asia were seen. The significant elements such as mosques, tomb, religious schools (madrasah) and soup kitchens that related with the imaret, created the basis of Ottoman architecture. Besides, the dome also placed almost every significant building and achieved huge inner spaces.

Bursa was the first capital of the Ottoman principality, then they moved to the European side and took Constantinople, they got the territory of Byzantines. The Byzantine creation, Hagia Sophia church served as a source for many other churches in Ottoman. On the other hand, Sinan who was the greatest Ottoman architect, master in the mosque and other buildings construction. He established the Ottoman style and transformed the empire landscape.

“I saw the monuments, the great ancient remains. From every ruin I learned, from every building I absorbed something.” – Sinan

 

Throughout the 15^th and 18^th century, Ottoman had the power on Mediterranean and to control the whole empire, they became a great builders. As an indicator of wealth, they built great markets, baths, religious structures; they placed the mosques with spiky minarets and huge domes over the hills. Besides, the local symmetry was preferred for the Ottoman urbanism.

During the 13^th century, the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, Osman I, settled the people in northwestern Anatolia. Orhan, the son of Osman decided on Bursa as a capital city. At the end of the 14^th century the capital moved to Edirne. Ottoman architects influenced from the architecture style of Anatolian region. The Persian arcades, vaulted masonry of Armenian churches and the dome style of Seljuk tombs were imitated. The Orhan Gazi mosque, built in Bursa, had the reverse-T plan type as in the other Ottoman mosques. Its’ entry façade made with pointed arches(Gothic style). Besides, two central domes covered the prayer hall leading to mihrab. As an other example, Yeşil Camii (Green Mosque) has also reverse- t plan and all the elements of the mosque are in a proportion and repeated. During the 14^th century The Yeşil Camii belonged to an imaret and imarets mostly included a mosque, a turbe, madrasa, hamam, sometimes hospital and public soup kitchen. The imaret term united with the soup kitchen, then in the 20^th century, the new term külliye was introduced.

Orhan Gazi Mosque

Green Mosque

Instead of these reverse-T plan mosques, The Ulu Camii followed the hypostyle type. It’s bays carry the rounded dome. The bay with a rounded dome considered as a standard unit of Ottoman architecture.

 

 

 

 

Gothic Europe

In the 12^th  and 13^th century, the trades and activities of artisans effect the European cities characteristic. It led to the revival of the cities. The necessity of market places increased; France tried to bring an environment for trade, so that emergence of markets began. Besides, the public spaces and new cathedrals began to increase. On the other hand, as a new style the Gothic architecture, started to occur in France. It was like an attempt in terms of national and cultural values. When it emerges, it became a one and basic style.

 

Market Towns and New Towns

At the end of eleventh century, we saw an increment in the farming, agricultural production (this brought new and innovator solutions) and so population in medieval cities. Thus, the cities began to develop; the living conditions, welfare and life expectations changed. These medieval cities protected with high city walls, including narrow streets, cathedrals, public places such as marketplaces, town halls, hospitals etc. with an orthogonal plan.

Artisans can meet at a place for exchanging, through the fairs and the champagne fair –medieval European fairs- was the cycle of trade fairs that was in the France. These champagne fairs placed outside the city walls. These walls enclosed the permanent settlement areas (faubourgs) and surrounded the Troye city. The palaces in Troye were placed away from the bartering. The European commercial cities prefigured with the transformation of Troye: the perimeter of the city become larger with the layers that had a connection with streets. On the other hand, in Brugge that is the Belgian medieval city, the walls rebuilt as an oval. The canal system was developed and some monuments were built. (Bruges traders had a major role on distribution)

The new town concept as an enterprise started in Zahringer that part of south Germany. They supported the market towns such as Berne, that were placed on central street. Almost at the end of the 12^th century, the city planners of Freiburg (a city of Germany) formed the second street cross to the first. Because of the city emerged as a market, the planners constituted sites on side streets as a secondary position for sacred and institutive structures.  Besides, the Berne’s central market street had a huge width unlike the classic medieval streets. In addition, Berne had a linear formation with increasing their parallel streets. The deep arcades on the front of the building and single arches could be seen during the 14^th and 15^th century.

In France, the region was doubled and the new polygonal town include blocks that were in grid of square formation. At the center of the town, one square had left for the city markets. On the other hand, during the 13^th century, the several “new town”(bastides) built by both English and French to strength their power and these new towns had a grid plan with streets. Lastly, we can say that these new towns and commercial cities offered accessible and free movement.

 

The Gothic Cathedral

During the 13^th and 14^th century, in Europe, Gothic as a new style in architecture that was evolved from Romanesque architecture, started to be seen firstly in the churches. As in the classical Roman style, it has some different details. It had a spirit of its own but also it carry the Romanesque architecture style.

The elongated structural elements mostly used to emphasize verticality and to create an interior light as in heaven. Rib vault, flying buttresses and pointed arch are the main architectural features that are seen in Gothic structures (as a supporting system.) These are together served to the potential of the light (fill the interior with light).

In addition, the Gothic style first appeared in St-Denis, Paris. The church of St-Denis have elongated members and windows with stained glass. The façade of the church was inserted between the two towers an oculus, rounded windows. In all Gothic churches façade, we can see this novel motif (rounded window) that symbolized the wheel of fortune.

St-Denis Church

*Notre Dame Cathedral, Chartres Cathedral and Cologne Cathedral can be another examples.

Throughout the century most of the cathedrals were evolved in Gothic style. Notre Dam, as a new cathedral at Laon (one of the territories of France), provided a symbol of unity for divided city. It consist of choir that extends beyond the transept and apse, a nave which is surrounded by double aisle and square chapels. The apse at the east of the cathedral has clerestory windows that supported with flying buttresses. Ribbed vaults that are supported by flying buttresses, spread to areas and creating a rhythm in the elongated supports (ground-floor columns).

On the other hand, verticality was mandatory for Gothic cathedrals. As another example, The Chartes Cathedral that was placed on top of the hill, served as both a community center, town meetings, law courts and theatre. It seemed over scaled for a city and had higher ribbed vaults in the nave. The shafts go up along the crossing to apse without any interruption to the vaults that increase the verticality. Besides, to make the building more high, flying buttresses were used on exterior.

Stained glass windows

During the 13^th century, the structures in St Denis were let to work on them. The structures had the walls were reduced to thin skeleton of stone (rayonnant). Apart from that, in the mid-thirteenth century the works on Notre Dam was continued. They created something like “rayonnant” to enlarge the windows.

The Spread of Gothic

As I mentioned, Gothic architecture firstly originated in France (with church of Saint-Denis) and then spread throughout the Europe. Outside of France, other nations people associated the Gothic style with the French buildings. The English also had a role on the development of this style. Actually the ribbed vaults started to be seen at Lincoln Cathedral very early. On the other hand, in plan, the vault over the choir at St-Hugh Cathedral seemed like contiguous Y shape. As an addition, these structures had never collapsed.  Apart from these, there was a structural failure in English cathedrals that related with the collapse of the central tower. When we pass to the Germany, the Gothic style appeared through the coming of French masons. In Trier, city in Germany, Liebenfrau church’s choir windows were imitation of the Reims Cathedral’s, that exposed the entity of French masons.

Although Italy tried to resist against Gothic style, they create new types of the ribbed vaults and pointed arches. In 14^th century, the plan of the cathedrals in Florence and Bologna benefit from simplified Gothic style, but flying buttresses could not be seen. However, in Milan the tyrants supported the Duomo di Milano or Milan Cathedral that has an in full and spectacular Gothic.

The Spread of Islam

  The major world religion Islam, that was the second largest religion after Christianity, introduced by the Prophet Muhammad in 7^th century CE in Arabia that had a relation with both Mesopotamia and Egypt. As in Constantine’s Christianity/ Byzantine, Islamic culture also mostly focus on the religion. Thus, the highest and most effective expression of the Islam was the religious architecture such as madrasah and mosques that were the center of Islamic culture. Apart from its own style and language, Islamic architecture include also various forms and styles of other countries. We may say that, the character of architecture also somehow related with the Mediterranean culture.

The most essential and significant structures were mosques that was the gathering place to worship, also a discussion and resting place. It is defined by some distinctive elements. Such as, minaret, mihrab, dome, courtyard etc. The minaret that is like a slender tower, is one of the oldest elements of Islamic architecture. It was like a reminder of the entity of Islam.

Mecca is the city that Muhammad was born, also a holy and pilgrimage (site) for nomadic tribes of Arabia. It hosted many mosques, tombs, forts that were create a circular orientation. Besides, Mecca is the home of the Kaaba that is the most important Islamic mausoleum. This pre-islamic monument that has a meaning ‘cube’ but not properly a cube, built from granite and covered with a black fabric to protect the Kaaba. The pilgrims come together at the surrounding courtyard (haram).

 

 

 

 

 

 

Apart from the Mecca, Muhammad moved to Medina to build up the first Islamic city. He encourage the modest architecture because of taking the afterlife as a base. Unlike from the pagan temple’s style, first Muslims preferred the secular structures. With an order of Muhammad, an enclosure was built, known as the prophet Muhammad’s house with a square courtyard (Mosque of the Muhammad) that was a primitive structure. It considered as the first mosque in Medina. At first, for Muslims praying, the direction of the worship, qibla faced with Jerusalem, but after the conquest of the Medina, it become Kaaba.

 

 

 

 

 

 

-The first mosques included some basic elements such as, fountains and covered halls.

Since the 7^th century, the mosques have built around the world with its various types. While there are various types, three common plans can be defined. One of was the hypostyle hall that adjoin with an open courtyard (sahn), was the main characteristic of the hypostyle mosque which dates back to end of the 7^th century. We come across with one of the earliest example in Kufah, Iraq, with a square hall and spaced columns. Kufah was the new city that Arabs founded, was established on a grid with crossed streets like the ancient Rome, include some open plazas (maydan) that surrounded by orthogonal streets.

Diagram reconstruction of the Prophet’s House, Medina

 

 

The Umayyad Period: Jerusalem and Damascus

After the Muhammad’s cousin Ali took the power, moved the capital from Mecca to Kufah. Then the tribe of Umayyad that were rival, settled in Damascus. The caliph of Umayyad, built the Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem in the late 7^th century, that was the oldest Islamic most visible monument, built over the rock. The root of the mosaics and structure of the dome came from Byzantine style. It located near the center of Temple Mount with a central plan that covered by a central dome like the Christians martyrium. The octagonal arcade( that had pointed arch or ablaq features)surrounding the rock.  Besides, we still can see continuation of use of mosaics. Both exterior and interior decorated with marbles and mosaics.

 

After the Umayyads gained strength over the Mecca, they started to build much more fascinating mosques. One of was enlarged Mosque of the Prophet and other one was Al-Aqsa Mosque that was in the Jerusalem Old Temple Mount, had a basilical hypostyle hall. (Similar with the Christian Basilica) They contained one of the essential elements of mosques that is mihrab. It is a hollow in the wall and specify the qibla. Near the mihrab there was an enclosure, a box that called maqsurah to preserve the ruler. Besides, next to the mihrab there was minbar is a covered pulpit that located on a qibla wall.

 

The other essential monument was Great Mosque. It contains prayer hall and large courtyard that enclosed an octagonal pavilion, surrounded with the arcades supported by Corinthian columns. The walls of mosque covered with mosaics.

On the other hand the Damascus’s desert palaces that served as caravansaries were center of the agricultural property. These palaces had solid walls as symbolic. Qasr Mshatta can be an example that we can see the both Roman and Sassanid influences. It had limestone walls, symmetrical plan, central entry hall and larger court.

In the middle of the eight century, the revolution of Abbasid ended the Umayyad dynasty and established a round city with a capital called Baghdad (Madinah el-Salam (city of peace)). The initial plan would be a perfect circle with the southwest gate that pointed the Mecca. The entries had vault arches that also called iwan and hall with a golden dome. Besides, Baghdad had cross-longitudinal streets that covered with vaults. On the other hand, imperial palaces that framed by the central void, started to be constructed. Besides, the houses for caliph’s family were in the outer of the round and the administrative buildings located the inside of the round.

Baghdad Round City

A decade later Harun transferred the capital to Ar-Raqqah and began to construction of octagonal buildings. After the death of Harun, Samarra became the capital with extended Abbasid palaces and mosques. Caliph’s Palace was an example of it. The gateway formed by the iwans. The ground included amphitheater, central esplanade and gardens. Then, when Mutawakkil started to administer the city, he wanted to build most largest mosque in the world. So that, the Great Mosque of Samarra emerged. It has a rectangular layout and the courtyard surrounded by arcades. Besides, its’ minaret – Malwiya Tower- was a cone with spiral ramp.

Great Mosque of Samarra

Additionally, in Tunusia the dynasty of Aghlabid, Great Mosque of Kairouan was rebuilt with a high minaret, as an imitation of Great Mosque of Baghdad.

 

 

 

 

Early Christian Italy / Byzantium / Constantinople

Constantine was the first emperor of Rome, who raised from the power complications and stated the Christianity. Although Christianity was not the statutory religion in Rome, Constantine transformed the conditions and nature. So that, the focus of architecture also varied. So, churches that are the symbol of the religion, became more essential and important. There was a distinction between the pre-Constantine churches and post-Constantine’s because of the transition of Paganism to Christianity. We can say that, as we encounter almost in every period, the changes, struggles in religion reflected to the architecture (the Christian Church) also in ancient Rome.

 

 

The churches continued to survive and take powerful place in the city, even after Constantine left. As a note, Roman temples had an exterior orientation that reflects the openness of Pagan religion, formed on the exterior. However, because of the Christianity was a “mystery religion”, there was a reorientation from exterior architecture to interior. So, it needed large interior spaces. Thus, basilican church architecture became the base for church architecture within the ancient Rome architecture traditions.

After the strikes of the Visigoths, Ostrogoths and Vandals, the popes, who took the place of emperors, supported the churches such as Santa Sabina, Santa Maria M. and Santo Stefano Rotondo. Firstly, Santa Sabina is a grand space that had a dominant central axis from entrance to apse and colonnades orient the focus to apse. Actually, these features make humans feel small (unimportant). Santa Maria Maggiore included Ionic column order, complex mosaics at the wall and had a coffered wooden ceiling. Lastly, Santo Stefano Rotondo that had an uncompleted dome, is the oldest example of circular church. The arcade divide the centre and stabilize the structure. Besides, the church may inspired from the Holy Sepulchre Church in Jerusalem. Additionaly, height, length and orientations of these churches, make humans feel small and unimportant.

Santa Maria Maggiore Church

On the other hand, in time, some statues occurred that was about the transformation of pagan temples to church, such as Pantheon. This time it was not devoted to God, but devoted to the martyrs.

 

Milan on the Eve of the Gothic Advance

Towards the 3^rd century, while the city divided into east and west, Milan became the capital city of Western Roman Empire. In the time of St. Ambrose who was the bishop of Milan and tried to provide a formula about medieval church-state relation. Sant’Ambrogio Church, the Basilica Apostolorum and San Simpliciano church were formed as a martyrdom churches and supported by him.

San Lorenza was the oldest church in Milan that was built by the rival emperors. The form of basilica follows a central system and included four towers at the corners. There was a connection between the chapels and the main part of the church. Besides, the Corinthian columns lined up the front of church and it opened to the orthogonal atrium.

 

The Dome as an Act of Faith

In the 5^th century, after the Western Rome fall, as the eastern Rome the Byzantine Empire arose. Constantine shifted the capital to Constantinople (New Rome) that got his name. Byzantines developed their own political, religious system and also architecture. In the Byzantine, the Roman architecture tradition continued with adding some new systems that were strengthening walls and domed churches. So we can also say that the domes b

ecome a remarkable symbol of Christianity. Besides, because of the Christianity the basilicas turned into churches that had a central floor plan.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Constantinople: The First Christian Capital

Throughout his domination, Constantine established palaces, hippodromes, churches that had major three type, and mausoleums while he considered the Christianity principles and to promote it. On the site of Byzantium, he was founded the Constantinople that located between the Europe and Asia. On the other hand, The Mese that was the main street and the center of Constantinople, dominate the peninsulas’ urban structure. In fact, the mese means “middle road”, so it was cutting through almost the entire city, that surrounded by porticoes and colonnaded shops. Moreover, there was a forum, which we encountered also in other ancient cities. However, this time, it was not in rectangular form. The Forum of Constantine that was in circular form with lined up colonnades, included two monumental gates. At the centre there was a column with statue of Constantine. In the forum, the Senate House established with huge doors and there was a golden gate(arch) to pass to the Great Palace. Besides, Augusteio, with its key monuments, was a large, central open public space that located south of the Hagia Sophia and in time, it became a court of Hagia Sophia.

Hagia Sophia that was one of the great churches of Constantine, devastated several times and then reconstructed. Reconstruction of Justinian was a masterpiece and the greatest surviving example of Byzantine architecture. Anthemius of Tralles and Isodore who were the architects of the church, invented some new perspectives. It was unique in several aspects, mostly in terms of the size and dimensions.

Hagia Sophia served as a basilica that had a complex system of vaults, arches, mosaics, coverings and domes; the highest central dome and the semi-domes. We can also defined it as “sphere within the sphere” as a representation of the world. This whole elongated space covered up with a huge central dome that had very large continuous distance than the Pantheon’s. The central dome attached with windows and gave floating sense. Besides, the semi domes that supported the main dome, expand the space to a rectangle.  Also, pendentives that are like a transition between the rectangular base and the circular shape of dome, supported the dome.  The dome, carried by the arches but inside of the church, you don’t sense the arches because of its embedded condition. Besides, these supportive arches of domes covered by mosaics and especially the golden mosaics stand out. On the other hand, ‘immaterial space’ concept come across. Because the spiritual effects more significant than the physical. It include abstracted, different column orders that are in various scale. So, in overall, we can also say that Hagia Sophia has a complex form rather than the simple and proportional character like the Greek temples.

Mosaïques de l’entrée sud-ouest de Sainte-Sophie (Istanbul, Turquie)

Hagia Sophia’s appearance during Byzantine times

In the first century BCE, Ravenna became the capital of Western Rome, located on the Adriatic coast. It was the capital of Byzantine architecture with the churches, mausoleums, campaniles and baptisteries. We can see mostly the influences of Byzantine style, but at the same time it was also close to the Western Roman style. Such as mausoleum of Galla Placidia, the Arian Baptistery, Basilica of Sant’Apollinare, San Vitale Church and etc.

At the end of the fifth century when Theodoric, the king of the Ostrogoths take the control of Italy and started to follow Roman style and increase the number of religious structure; cathedrals, baptistery etc.

Ancient Rome / 200BCE-300CE

The ancient empires that were Rome, China and Mexico took an important and strong place in the world history, at the beginning of the first century BCE. As in the ancient Greece orthogonal-gridal town planning, these three cultures also benefit from the grid system in their cities. Even though Rome had hilly topography, instead of rational construction they mostly used grid system. Besides, religion was important for these three empire so they built mostly considering the religious issues.

The rising of Rome started after the settlement of Greeks and Etruscans in Mediterranean. Step by step, Romans defeated them and expand their empire up to Britain. Therefore, the Romans influenced by the Greek, Etruscan and also Egyptian culture. Roman empire internalize some ideas of classical and Hellenistic art/architecture. However, apart from the few high quality structure of other cultures, Romans took the city architecture as a whole and came with a new style and innovations. They built the city with functional, large-scale colonnaded concrete structures.

Roma Caput Mundi: A Regime of Architecture

They named themselves as the head of the world because of their power and tried to strengthen it also with their architecture.

The high population of city, brought some new solutions like building public structures. Using arches and vaults that came from Etruscans, provided succesful construction for use of public. For instance street markets, public baths, theaters. Besides, basilicas, colonnaded streets, vaulted baths were built, that were improved version of existing structures.

Rome in the first two century, that governed by the king, imitated and copied the Greek architecture style. We can encounter with more improved Etruscan architectural culture. For instance the Roman temples mostly repeated the Etruscans’.

–The Roman Forum that was the center of Roman city, political space and place of public meetings, law courts etc. and surrounded with open-air markets, temples and shops. Apart from the open Agora, the forum enclosed by colonnaded structures. Besides, Romans filled the Agoras’ open spaces by the second century.

– The Romans learned orthogonal planning from the Greek colonies. Thanks to this, land surveying and the division of land was planned into a grid and cardinal direction(cardo and decumanus) by Roman urban planners.

Grid of short blocks / Timgad

Follow natural topography / Djemila

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In conclusion, the spaces, the quality of human life and behaviour, fair legal system, were controlled with depending on the architecture and urban plan in Rome.

Pompeii

Pompeii was a large city of Rome that completely buried after the volcanic eruption. Due to the excavation in 19-20th century CE, Pompeii gave a sense about what the early Roman architecture was and understanding the life of Romans. The Greeks orthogonal long blocks and the Roman square blocks gave a shape to the city pattern.

 

Pompeii Forum as a centre of a Roman city, was the center of religious, social and political institutions. It was an open space with the oblong shape and surrounded by temples, basilicas, houses and etc.

The temples that was devoted to God, has only the front side where you can enter. (Frontality) There was a front facade to be viewed and the sides as secondary surfaces. Temple of Apollo, Jupiter, Isis and etc. For instance, the temple of the Jupiter that was in the Pompeii Forum and center of the religion of Roma. It has an entry staircase at the front and its’ interior contained cellar that divided by columns of Corinthian an Ionic styles.

Maison Caree Temple

Plan

The Basilica was one of the essential element of the Pompeii forum, the oldest example of public buildings that survived in Roma history. It was a meeting area for administration, a law court and a market place. Its’ entry placed on the narrow side that overlooked the forum with strong axiality.

Apart from the temples and basilicas, the theaters and baths also had a major place in Roman architecture. For many contemporary culture, baths are very private activity but in Rome it was a public activity. It was a most common daily and social activity. Roman bath complexes included various rooms such as palaestra(open-air garden), pool, places to socialize. Besides, Roman baths offered the first structures with dome. The dome included oculus for the light. On the other hand there was a underfloor heating system that called hypocaust. Through the walls, the hollow rectangle tubes carried the hot air above.

Stabian Bath

Diocletian bath

On the other hand, theaters was one of the important part of their social life. Although, they inspired much about the architecture from the Greeks, they had a different approach about the theaters. They made an artificial topography that formed by vaults and arches. Mostly the whole structure was more integrated and enclosed. The theater of Pompeii that the first theater in Rome, built with a temple addition. The seating area (cavea) surrounded by the temple. It divided into two part; orchestra and auditorium. Auditorium and stage created a D shaped volume.

Besides, to watch gladiator games, wild animal hunt and etc. Romans built a new type of theater that called amphitheater. It had an elliptic character and consist of huge stone and concrete shells. As an example to amphitheater, Colosseum is the most prominent one in Rome. Its’ facade consisted of Tuscan, Corinthian and Ionic column order.

Colosseum

In ancient Rome, domus was type of house that included some rooms, courtyards and garden, also had a meaning beyond the dwelling.  It was also a place of occupation and religion. For safety, houses didn’t faced with the streets. It included some rooms, courtyards and gardens. The entry led us to the atrium(main area) and beyond the atrium there was an office that opened to peristyle garden court. Besides, decoration, painted walls, colorful natural elements were the part of the houses because of the idea of beauty.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Besides, villas were usually built for the upper class. It included a larger scale rooms that were more open. The sequent layout of villas inversed according to domus. However, the lower class mostly lived in the ruined and cramped apartments that known as insula. These were multi-level apartments that were built high as private homes.

It shows that, the government in Rome, dramatically effect the way people live and so the architecture.

The Greek City State / 700-200 BCE

The Greek City State

Ancient Greek architecture that highly effect on Western architecture, include simplicity, perspective, proportion, balance ant etc. The stadiums, temples, theatres that emphasized columns, pediment became the foundation character. It exists  with the cultural diversity. Also, classicism made alive both the beauty and forms of Greek architecture.

In ancient Greece, democracy(There was no social differentiations), political issues became important. So actually their architecture mostly started to base on the political process. The buildings came from the necessity to spaces that are in a dialogue.

 

The Greek Polis: The City of Public Space

The peripheral formation of the city brings unique democratic government so the idea of public aggregation. It means apart from the other periods, they create open public spaces. They cling to the ide of ‘living together’ that brings along the open reachable buildings.

 

Acropolis was an ancient citadel which has a meaning of high city, was both home for the God and place for people. It contains number of ancient buildings.It harbour both military because of the citadel feature and religious point.

 

Apart from that, Agora that was an open and interactive public area at the center of the city that surrounded by public spaces, temples. It was like a gathering  point of the citizens for various activities, ceremonies, theatre performances and etc. As a subtitle, Athenians had a theatrical culture that arise from festivals. They built open-air public theatres that sat on natural topography and used wooden blenchers in Agora (until the theater made up stone).

As I mentioned before, the political complications reflect to the structural process. For instance, a cylindrical tholos structure, square-shaped house that the council of citizen and etc. (Bouleuterian)

On the other hand  stoas was a common type in buildings that provide safity, protected atmosphere to meeting spaces. Royal Stoa( not open to public) and Painted Stoa located in the Agora.

Greek Colonies and Orthogonal Planning

In 7th century, the Greek grid that was to form, control, organize and divide structures. This revealed “the orthogonal planning” (Orthogonal planning was already seen in Egypt). They benefit from the scheme that called per strigas(refer to division of land).

Hippodamus was an ancient Greek architecture and urban planner who involved the division of the land (for public, private, sacred use) system with considering differences for ideal city-state. His system structured the grid in geometric formula.

Aristotle: “ Hippodamus invented the art of planning cities.”

His system effect the ancient Greek cities. For example: Hippodamus name was associated with the Miletus and Priene that are orthogonally planned towns.

Miletus was the colony on Ionian cost, the fine example of the grid plan and where the geometry was born. The city had plaza, courtyard, temples and etc. to enlarge public spaces. Began with L-shaped Harbor Stoa. Besides, Priene that was the primary source of Greek town planning, had more integrated city plan. The spaces, temple, theatre etc. adapted into a geometric pattern. additionally, it placed on a slope therefore inclined relations were seen between the parts. In conclusion, this orthogonal geometric planning, the gridal system helped the city creation.

Hippodamus of Miletus (5th cen. B.C.), the first to theorize the gridded city plan. Priene

Olynthus rebuilt within orthogonal planning and because of the equality in society, the houses were uniform, built without distinction. The oikos that is a basic unit in the Greek cities, revealed the modernization of traditional houses that are well-organized.

Greek Temple

The Greek temple had an exterior that surrounded by columns and mostly located in distant from the city. (For instance Panthenon that was the most famous, simplest temple in Greek architecture.) On the other hand, the temples were made of wood, however the wooden architecture transferred to the stone architecture. moreover, The Classical Greek architecture was divided into three order; style of Doric, Ioniz or Corinthian. These orders governed the proportion, form, relationships of the column and etc. Doric order was the first and simplest order and western colonies mostly preferred. In Doric order, columns are associated with narrow intercolumniation.

Parthenon

Plans of Greek Temples that include stone Doric columns.

Apart from that, Ionic order had different proportion on columns, intercolumniations and entablature( entablature is the architectural feature that sits above the columns.) The entablature narrower and less heavy than Doric order temple. The Temple of Artemis can be an example of the largest ionic temple.

The Corinthian order was the most ornate of three orders and characterized with a columns that are slender fluted. It had similar proportions with Ionic order. Temple of Apollo is an oldest known example of it.

In addition, to create an ideal temple, object, perspective was important for them. To form an architectural illusion for perfection, they benefited from the perspective distortion. moreover, to strengthen the visual relation and observation from multiple direction, they placed every object at an angle with relational and perspectival planning.

 

When we look at the present day, we can see several building that have the idea of ancient Greek cities structure. For example, The Second Bank of the United States like a replication of Parthenon. Some facades were designed in Doric order.

Besides, St Gervais et St Protais Church in Paris is an example that include the three column orders. At ground floor Doric, at second floor Ionic and at third floor Corinthian order can be observed.

Biblical Jerusalem ( 1500-750 BCE)

We don’t just interpret and comprehend the organization of settlements or cities plans, that are in a relation by just analysing the structures that they made; but also the written sources, archeological pieces and some recorded things have a noteworthy importance on the ancient architecture.

The architecture, the structures gives us a significant clue about the cities. However, because of the climate conditions, devastations for some reasons or just leaving the region before building permanent constructions cause obscurity on the cultures even if it is important. For instance Phoenicians. On the other hand when we consider Jerusalem as the center of the sacred, that was the powerful city in history because of the sacred intentions of Jews, Muslims and Christians -they attributed different meanings- ,even it lost some artifacts or faced with destructions.

 

The city of the Jews and Many Others

The first inhabitants were the Canaanites in Jerusalem that were not much permanent. It had been governed by various people. On the other hand it hold on to the hills. (1800 BCE)

At the end of the 3rd millennium BCE, seminomadic people started to leave the Ur and migrated to the west Mediterranean. During the 16th century BCE, even the Egypt was invasioned by the Jews, by means of the strong documentation, the questions about the state removed. We can follow the improvements on the state. Then, Jews left the Egypt and resettled in between Egypt and Mesopotamia.(1200 BCE) Then the Philistine attacked there but the leader(David)didn’t touch the villages that had already existed. So, I may say that, generally there was a resettling process situation via some occupations. Besides, the city of David, merged with the oval-shaped hill.

In early Jerusalem there was also social differentiations like elites and the others. Therefore there was also a difference in living. For instance elites lived within the walls but the others like living at the border. Furthermore, because of the seminomadic situation, the usage of brick and stone for the building disappeared. Apart from that, fort he politic circumstances, they needed some palace to show permanency, also home for their God.

 Against Architecture: The Rise and Fall of the Temple

-The questionable thing according to Jewish people was, building a temple near to the palace.

For the ceremonies, Jewish people came together at outdoor or on a hill. Besides, the moveable sanctuary “Ark of the Covenant” that was honored for the prophet. In later, the idea of, because of the intangible side of the religion, the architectural materials that was used for it, was not a desired thing, came up.

David’s son built a temple that called as “First Temple” while they disconnected the passing between the tribes and Ark of the Covenant that were placed in a sanctuary. The temple included hypostyle halls, residential courts and etc. The walls were enclosed the temple similar with Mesopotamian and Egyptian temples. It was hard to pass to the interior. It was similar with megarons’ of the Mycenaean, narrow, oblong and elevated to a high platform. The important thing was, the temple was just the implication of the deity not a sculpture of it.

After the David’s son lost the authority, Jewish state divided into two-part. (Jerusalem- Judah). The First Temple was demolished by Babylonians and Jewish people distributed.

Prophet Jeremiah who saw the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple, thought as, God can be also honoured without the gigantic structures. However, the second temple( Herod’s Temple) that was built with forming the hill.

Being a city that can be living, required some power, authority in terms of the political, religious, architecture and differences that were carried within a theory; while considering these we can say that Jerusalem was became more than just being a city in history.

Cities of Mesopotamia / 3000-1500 BCE

Throughout the Neolithic period, the Neolithic Revolution raised and there was a transition in the human cultures, from hunter-gatherer lifestyle to agriculture and farming. Therefore, urban cultures considered the conditions of the regions while they were settling. They settle around the river elongating from Egypt- Southwest Asia- India. The existence of a great river system that cities can be in a relation is in question.

In the early cities and Bronze Age, we see the complex societies with different degrees of social stratification and practises. There was an administration and bureaucracy. This affected the way of how they built and arranged them. On the other hand,they started to create great buildings for storing the agricultural crops. Besides, the architectural traditions answer the political and religious needs. Their construction had specific relation with divine that called sacred precincts (One of the functions of city). On the other hand, the materials that were rare started to be used as a display of power and wealth -which as permanent-. The durability, permanence and strength became important.

Mesopotamian Bronze Age / The Urban Temple: Creating the Axis Mundi

In Lower Mesopotamia we can see emergence of first cities like Sumerians. Besides, the lower Mesopotamia was a fertile place that marshes, floods, lagoons and etc. appeared while approached to the sea. So that, they started to farming/agriculture. The relation between food and the city increased because production, consumption, storage and distribution issues became very important. The other important thing was about the religion. Their constructions had specific relation with divine. They had sacred precinct as the urban center, that was the specific place where you relate with the God. For instance they created stairways to access the God. It called as axis mundi that provided the connection between God and Earth. Ziggurat looked as perceptible axis mundi.

Spreading between Tigris- Euphrates Rivers generate the city system. It helped to have an irrigation system for agriculture and agriculture started to associate the Mesopotamian cities. There was a relation between agriculture and the city form. Besides, how you form the field and relate them became an important point because the cities had their own language that relate with the pattern within the agricultural fields, hierarchy in temples, arrangement of the canals and etc. Thus, stepwise they became civilize.

Sumerian city states

Sumer was the earliest civilization in the region of Mesopotamia that is known. It had the agricultural city states like Eridu that was the oldest settlement and Uruk that was the largest metropolis, had towering temple at the center of agricultural area. These fortified cities interconnected with the field by canals and dikes with central complexes. This brings the social system. The elites that constituted the divergent parts of the city. They began to store agricultural crops, made harmonic regulation of rituals to assure continued productivity of land. On the other hand, they designed divine places that called as temenos. For instance ziggurats, high platforms that were made of mud bricks, was a bridge between heaven and earth- symbolic representation-.  It was a huge platform with series of smaller platforms on top, at th very top the temple was placed.

Building one on top of another type of building seen in Jericho and continued along Mesopotamia and transferred to temples. This was the stage of ziggurat.( Started to raise building higher into air.) There was Enki Temple in Eridu which was the symbol of the political system of Sumerian cities. The White Temple in Uruk, was the first simple Ziggurat that was visible from a huge distance. At the very top the rectangular temple placed similar with Eridu’s.

Kingship: The Emergence of the Palace

In Sumerian cities, around 2500 BCE, improvement of the palace complex that become a new urban structure type, encouraged by new kingship. Then, Sargon took control of some cities from the king, gathered the regions first empire. (political shift in Mesopotamia). Besides, he found new capital city in Akkad. He started a new city instead of building on top of an existing one.

Ur: The City and The Ziggurat

Ur was the largest prototype city that was a port in Bronze Age Mesopotamia. It followed Sargon’s Akkad. In Ur, the king developed the wall, canal and public space’s infrastructure of city. Besides, the king was the governor of the Great Ziggurat of Ur.

The city surrounded  by a city wall in oval shape. In the center there was a temenos for the ziggurat. The streets were narrow and had organic layout, also it had open spaces. The level of streets continued to rise because of the trashes that they throw to public spaces. Besides, the Ur houses were tightly compacted blocks that made with mud bricks.

For Ziggurat, the King planned the temple area(temenos) that linked up between order and disorder. The whole composition surrounded by the buttresses. The ziggurat structured with three levels of terrace. It had stairs that rose in three ways in symmetry. The outer layer protected the core.

Lastly, when we look todays architecture we can see the similar examples of structures that have Ziggurat style. One example can be Tennessee University central library in Knoxville. 

Other than that, The Tower of Babel might be based on ziggurat in Mesopotamia.

 

 

 

 

World Architecture/ Prehistory

Architecture very firstly began with adapting to nature, the natural circumstances like hills, caves etc. After then, it became a shelter and primitive dwelling and the idea of build actually at first originated from the idea of feeling secure; protecting themselves etc. On the other hand, to fulfill the religious necessities, they needed the symbolic spaces.

The world already had architecture before the architects thanks to the natural process. So, we can say architecture was created as a second nature by humans. The earth was shaped by the nature. Afterwards, human started to learn how to build (from 500,000 to 3000 BCE)and discovered the potentials of the new materials. Various materials were used for permanent or temporary settlement. At first the prehistoric constructions suggested short-term interventions because of the nomadic life of the hunter-gatherers. Apart from these, the geography and the climate of the region effect the architectural knowledge (structural design).

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE

Both the animals and humans have tendency about building but humans have different, more developed capacity to learn how to build etc. The process moved like; first, imitation of natural forms—- dealing with the process of construction—- repeated or improved solutions of previous generations.

Vernacular architecture contains the traditions of building. It is rely on traditions and based on local needs in terms of materials, construction and design. On the other hand, to make better the building process, designers used the trial and error method. Their creations vary between the temporary shelter of tents and huts to more permanent structures in wood, mud and stone. Since the development of toolmaking; masonry, fired brick and notched timber appeared in the structural system. Additionally, the vernacular architecture strengthen the identity of people.

Paleolithic Mammoth Bone hut had the similar base with primitive hut features. The improvement was just about use of new material (Mammoth bones, ropes, hides). The walls of the huts getting heavy.

Nomads( temporary residential)— lighter structures—with min. material

Permanent residential — heavy structures

Some of the Nomadic people in North America built wigwams that required more skill for construction. Besides, the nomads built yurts in Mognolia, Kyrgzstan, Turkmenistan, which were larger and more developed than wigwams.

Moreover, the unbaked mud was the most common building material of the ancient world and it can be shaped easily but vulnerable to natural conditions. Thus, the best protection was dig or cut into the structure. Banpo village is one of the best-known prehistoric sites in China. There are dug out houses (oval houses) in the village. Thus, it acts like a wall.

On the other hand, two most prevalent kinds of earth construction is rammed earth and adobe brick. Adobe is made out of unbaked brick (water + earth + sun). Haka people (China) in villages offer the best examples, with the built collective dwellings that cylinder and cubes.

So, actually with the arise of the brick the transition from settlements that formed of curvilinear to rectailinear plans started. Assumed that it may related with the roofing idea, dimensions etc.

The Wooden Skeleton

The sticks and logs were used in detached houses since the Northern Europe forests provided these building materials and also the habitat to live. For example wooden longhouses (5^th and 6^th millennia) had been seen from the Black Sea to British Isles. Various types of Neolithic longhouse have been found at France, Norway, Romania, Greece and also European regions. In these structure the corridors were divided into bays- partly surrounded space- for animals and heart in the middle of the long central space.

 Iroquois longhouse

In places like Turkey, Japan, California, the wooden frames that preferred as structure method of fire and rot. In Çatalhöyük, the wooden frame and stone/mud fill compound could be seen. On the other hand, cruck frame was the main and extraordinary types of the wooden skeleton.

Stone and Compression

Apart from the other materials, stone was mostly preferred cause its useable for basis, supporter. However, the issue while building with stone was, hard to know which one needs to be cultivated or it must be to fit to another. However, the stone usually was chosen by the Neolithic societies because of its permanence.  Ex: Orkney Island coast, Scotland

Skara Brae — composed of small stone houses

Another thing is that, Neolithic stone cutters started to shaped the stones for some monumental works. For example, Göbeklitepe, which is a Neolithic site, composed of the T-shaped megaliths. They were arranged in a circular formation and the T shaped megaliths located at the central oval place.

 

 

 

Reference: World Architecture A Cross Cultural History – RICHARD INGERSOLL,SPIRO KOSTOF